Chlorine

Chlorine is a naturally occurring substance. Its manipulation and use in forming artificial chemical products has had devastating effects on the environment which we are only now beginning to understand. Chlorine is combined with hydrogen and carbon to form organochlorines. (29)

Organochlorines (OCs)

OCs are used in a vast variety of everyday products from pesticides to plastics, detergents and cosmetics to bleaches, shampoos and other chemically based materials. As long lasting "strong" chemicals they are ideal for industrial use. On the other hand they remain in our environment (and in our bodies) for a very long time before they begin to degrade. Because they are fat-soluble (readily stored in both human and animal fat) over a hundred different kinds of OCs will make up an average body load, the main source being dietary animal fats. The manufacture of OCs gives rise to many unintentional highly toxic by-products, which when burned or incinerated, release further harmful chemicals. (29)

"Cow's milk, like human breast milk, is a sensitive indicator of environmental pollution. Cows grazing in polluted areas will pick up pollutants and pass them on in their milk (and meat). Dioxins - toxic by-products of various chemical-manufacturing processes - turn up frequently in milk. These are found in greater concentrations in areas of industrial activity, such as waste incinerators, chlorine bleaching and pulp industries, chemical re-processing plants and so on. They cause cancer and reproductive and birth defects amongst other things. Dioxins concentrate in body fat, and therefore the fat in milk". (30)

Many of the first pesticides to be developed (DDT, Aldrin, Dieldrin) long since banned in most Western countries, persist in our bodies and in our environment: "They are found in human fat such as breast fat, and in breast milk, and appear to transfer freely across the placenta from mother to foetus. They have been linked to cancer and reproductive disorders; they kill wildlife and have been responsible for widespread reproductive failure in birds......Once present in body fat, some may persist for a lifetime - DDE, which forms when DDT breaks down, for example, lasts almost as long as the average human life". (31)

US studies have shown that the presence of dioxins and PCBs is linked to nervous system damage in babies, with effects on memory and co-ordination. (29) International bodies and scientific institutions are calling for a phase out of chlorine in manufacturing processes and manufactured products.

We know little about the effects any one of these substances may have on us but we know nothing at all about their effect in combination with each other. The US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) is proposing to screen 15,000 industrial chemicals for hormone-disrupting effects. Current testing does not cover endocrine disrupting effects. (32) The organochlorine pesticides which are regarded as potential breast carcinogens include DDT, Lindane, Atrazine, Endosulfan, and Chlordane. Of these, Atrazine, Endosulfan and Lindane, banned in most other countries, are still in regular use in the UK.

Pesticides

"One teaspoonful of concentrated pesticide could pollute the water-supply of 200,000 people for a day" (33) "Pesticide" is the general name for any chemical used to control/eradicate weeds, insects, pests, mould and plant disease in intensive food and plant production, in our homes and gardens, and in buildings, parks and public places. "Chemical-dependent farming represents a relatively new experiment in our approach to agriculture and the environment". (34)

We have been living with pesticides for the last 50 years - a period in which more than 3,500 have been approved for use in the UK, a period in which we have come to accept "chemical-dependent" methods at all stages of food production processes as normal - from ensuring a crop is not attacked by pests during its growth to preserving the end product during its transport to market destinations.

"Pesticides increase agricultural productivity in the short term, but there is no such thing as a free lunch". (35) Unfortunately there are many disadvantages to using pesticides. While they may keep particular pests away from crops, the very pests they are designed to keep away can become resistant to one pesticide, thus the greater need to use other pesticides.

"Despite the tenfold increase in the use of chemical insecticides since World War 2, the loss of food and fibre crops to insects has risen from 7% to 13%." and "At least 520 species of insects and mites, 150 plant species and 113 weeds have become resistant to pesticides meant to control them". (33)

Traditional (organic) methods of farming which utilise land management; crop rotation and cultivation of certain plants which repel pests are being ignored in favour of quick-fix chemical-control methods. "Only 3% of the £3 billion spent on farming support in the UK is currently allocated to environmentally sensitive farming schemes". (33)

The responsibility for monitoring and reporting pesticide residues in food lies with Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food (MAFF) and its Working Party on Pesticide Residues (WPPR). The two most important groups of pesticides which are regularly tested for residues are the Organochlorines (OC's) and Organophosphates (Ops). Testing has revealed that there can be considerable variance in levels of residues between one individual food commodity and another. (35)

Imported food may introduce problems from countries where controls, monitoring and testing may be less strict or non-existent. Chemicals banned in this country, e.g. DDT, are being off-loaded by manufacturers to developing countries where the majority of farm workers use no protective clothing and suffer some degree of respiratory, eye or skin irritation. Although governments in developing countries have targeted certain imported pesticides for restriction, they are often sold "under the counter" in more isolated rural locations. (5)

"Responsible for thousands of farm workers' deaths from poisoning worldwide every year, pesticides - at least 168 at the last count - are also linked to major diseases of the immune system, cancer, allergies, infertility and problems of foetal development. Though there are many who defend their efficacy and safety, and the agricultural benefits they bring, I have not found a single document that says they are good for the environment or for your health". (36) Lindane (Gamma-HCH)

Included in the government "Red List" of dangerous substances, Lindane is an organochlorine pesticide which has been shown to interfere with oestrogens in the body, is classified officially as a "possible human carcinogen" by the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) and listed as one of the world's most dangerous substances by the Pesticide Action Network. It is included on the PIC (Prior informed Consent) list: "an international protocol which requires exporters of certain particularly hazardous chemicals to inform the importing country of the chemical's legal status and its hazards". (37)

Lindane is: ".... the only remaining OC widely used in the UK as a domestic and agricultural insecticide, (cereal, vegetable and fruit crops) wood preservative and seed treatment, and to control head lice....Highly volatile, when applied to field crops in particular, up to 90 per cent enters the atmosphere, later to be deposited by rain....The manufacture of Lindane produces highly toxic wastes, themselves used to make other OC compounds, referred to as the "lindane chain of poison".....Lindane is one of the most common pesticide residues detected in UK foods, particularly animal products. Infants and children are significantly more susceptible to its toxic effects....evidence...suggests that where lindane is used extensively.....and where cattle are exposed to it, incidence of breast cancer is higher.....Lindane is known to penetrate the placenta barrier, and there is thought to be a link between Lindane exposure and abnormal foetal development and spontaneous abortion. Other suspected effects include growth retardation, damage to the nervous system and liver, and immunosuppression". (38)

Lindane is used widely on arable crops, particularly sugar beet, to kill the leather jacket beetle. Some 70% of the UK sugar beet crop is grown in Lincolnshire and this county has the highest rate of breast cancer in the country - 40 per cent higher than the national average. (39) It has been banned, withdrawn or severally restricted in twenty-eight countries because of its bio-accumulative properties (ability to build up in the environment).

The UK government signed a treaty at the International Conference on the Protection of the North Sea agreeing to reduce the levels of chemicals, including Lindane, by 50% between 1985 and 1995. This is implemented in the UK by substances listed under the "Red List" but the UK has failed to meet its target and figures from the National Rivers Authority indicate emissions of Lindane have increased by up to 50% in this time. (40)

In Israel in the 1970's, deaths from breast cancer were twice as high as in other countries, especially among younger women. But within a decade deaths from breast cancer dropped by 8 per cent overall and by 34 per cent in the lowest age groups. Researchers linked this phenomenon with the banning of Lindane in 1978 (due to the very high levels that had been found in Israeli dairy products) although the connection is not proven. (41)

Dichlorvos (DDVP)

The known carcinogenic and red-listed pesticide DDVP is used to control sea lice - the major problem in intensive fish farming. As well, other: "...disinfectants, fungicides, algicides and (other) pesticides...are used for cleaning cages and preventing weed build-up on nets". Salmon stocks require treatment several times each year. (42) DDVP: "has the highest acute toxicity of all the 22 dangerous substances on the government's "Red List"....". (43), is widely used in flea collars for pets and is approved in UK as a fly killer.

Plastics

Since the 1930s we have depended on an ever-growing range of products made from various sorts of plastic. With the advent of "plastics", once reusable consumer items became "disposable" items overnight (e.g. milk bottles and babies' bottles previously made from glass were replaced by plastic bottles).

One of the problems with plastics is the time they take to biodegrade if left in a landfill, but a far greater and more sinister problem arises if they are disposed of by incineration. When one of these plastics, Polyvinylchloride (PVC, is burned, several highly toxic substances, including dioxins are released. Dioxin is one of the most toxic chemicals known to human kind and classified by the IARC as the most potent human carcinogen. (44)

PVC is used in the manufacture of children's toys, food packaging, medical products, building materials, and musical records. It wasn't until studies were carried out on women working with vinyl chloride that it was discovered it could contribute to the death rates from breast cancer. Swedish studies established a link between occupational exposure to PVC and increased risk of testicular cancer by revealing that men who had worked with PVC were 6.6 times more likely to have contracted testicular cancer than those exposed to other plastics (with no additives) and that men who had the highest cumulative exposure to PVC were at greatest risk. (45)

We now know that certain plastics contain substances which cause breast cancer cells to grow. Researchers use oestrogen to stimulate cell growth when studying the growth of breast cancer cultures. In carrying out research on breast cells in plastic dishes, a biologist, Dr Ana Soto, discovered the cells growing without the presence of oestrogen. She and her colleagues found the explanation in a substance which was leaching from the plastic dishes. This substance, identified as the xenoestrogen NONYLPHENOL (an additive used to prevent plastic from cracking) is also a component in detergents and pesticides. (46)

Bispheno-A (BPA)

Bisphenol-A is used in the manufacture of polycarbonate plastics and epoxy resins. It is also used in a wide range of products such as white dental fillings, nail polish, food packaging, lenses, water filters, adhesives, water pipe linings and flooring. In laboratory tests, BPA has been shown to mimic oestrogen and levels found in water releases from factories have seriously affected fish in nearby streams. (47)

In 1995 a group of Spanish scientists discovered that BPA, when used in the lining of food cans, can leach into certain food products e.g. peas, mixed vegetables and mushrooms. Whether exposure from this source will cause any ill effects in humans and what the bioacculmulative qualities of these chemicals might be remain unknown to us. (48) Tests carried out to establish Tolerable Daily Intake (TDI) of BPA did not take account of its possible oestrogenic effects. Animal tests show low levels of BPA cause enlargement of the prostrate gland and stimulation of the pituitary gland (involved in inducing milk production). (49)

Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs)

PCBs are a group of over 200 compounds used in heating and cooling equipment, electrical insulation, as lubricating fluids and in various inks, adhesives and paints. They are highly toxic, persistent and bioaccumulative. Although officially banned, they are still used in electrical installations and due to their persistence can be found in the fat of polar bears in Norway. (50)

MAFF has discovered high levels of PCBs and dioxins in fish oil supplements, particularly fish liver oils. Public concern that the TDI of PCBs could be exceeded when combined with dietary intake of fish caused MAFF to warn that intake of: "some products could potentially lead to the TDI for Dioxins and PCBs being exceeded by toddlers and schoolchildren, which is undesirable". MAFF is currently in discussion with manufacturers to find ways of decreasing concentrations of PCBs in fish oil products. (51)

Phthalates

These chemicals are used in the production of PVC (to make it softer and more flexible), in lubricating oils and as carriers in perfumes for cosmetics, and in the ingredients of paints, inks and adhesives. MAFF has stated that phthalates are often present in paper and board packaging and have been detected in low concentrations in food packaging. Phthalates are found in other types of plastic packaging such as coatings on foil lids (as sometimes used with butter or margarine) and in cellophane.

At least three phthalates have been found to have endocrine disrupting qualities and it is estimated that we all eat at least 0.3mg of DEHP (di(2 ethylhexyl)), the most common phthalate, every day. DEHP has been found in human and animal tissue and is classified as a possible/probable human carcinogen by EPA and IARC. In 1996 there was a scare about Phthalates in baby formula - MAFF concluded that levels were below TDI limits and that they came from general environmental sources i.e. from factories making and using phthalates and from incinerators. (52) Currently the European Commission is considering putting restrictions on PVC toys containing phthalates and has decided that the risks posed by the substance gives "reasons for concern". Denmark's decision to target phthalates for phase-out before the year 2000 was based on evidence to suggest that falling sperm counts and reproductive disorders were linked to endocrine disrupters. (53)

OTHER ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS:

Radiation

Radiation has been used to treat everything from tuberculosis to curvature of the spine. One thing we know for certain - radiation causes cancer by causing mutation in cells:"By mutation we mean a disturbance of the behaviour of a cell brought about by damage to the DNA- and they've (advocates of nuclear power) had to admit that there is no such thing as a dose of radiation which is too small to cause this damage and that the damage, once incurred on a cell, as long as the cell lives and continues to divide, will be passed on to daughter cells, so they've had to admit that there is some element of danger here". (54)

We know from reports that women who survived the atomic bombs in Hiroshima and Nagasaki later went on to develop breast cancer, especially those women who were below ten years of age at the time. Radiation seemed to affect the breasts of the younger more than the older women. (55)

Because breast cancer takes so long to manifest itself we could be seeing an upsurge of breast cancer cases now from past exposure to radiation at a young age:"Much less is known about the long- term effects of exposure to low doses of radiation" (56)

The risk of breast cancer may also increase where radiation exposure occurs in combination with toxins: "Milk is a prime route by which consumers are exposed to radioactive contaminants released by nuclear plants. Milk is especially dangerous because it is quickly marketed, and short-lived radioactive isotopes are still present when it is consumed. Milk is associated with increased risk for breast cancer, and the combination of pesticides and radiation have been proposed as one possible explanation". (57)

Mammography

Breast tissue is extremely sensitive to radiation, yet mammography (breast X-ray) is one of the few tools we have to detect breast cancer. While the arguments for and against mammography continue, there is little evidence to suggest that routine screening in younger women is beneficial; indeed it could cause more breast cancer than it detects. Because breast tissue in women under 50 is very dense, changes in their breasts are difficult to detect by X-ray. Several studies suggest that routine mammograms are exposing younger women to unnecessary radiation and increased risk of breast cancer. (58)

Electromagnetic fields (EMFs)

EMFs emanate from electricity in both our natural and manufactured environments as biologically active, long waves of radiation. EMFs are all around us and the greatest exposure to them comes from everyday appliances, at home from household appliances (television, radio) and power lines and at work from computer monitors, photocopiers and printers. (59) Electrical impulses generated by the human body regulate activity in our cells. There is growing concern in the general community about the capacity of EMFs to disturb and distort cellular structure and behaviour. While their overall effects on our health remain unknown, studies over the past twenty years have found clear connections between EMFs and miscarriages, birth defects and cancer clusters.Residents of a Scottish estate suspected that electrical pylons, which carry 132,000 watts of electricity over their heads, were linked to high rates of local cancer incidence. The eight houses nearest the pylons lost nine people to cancer in a period of fifteen years. (60)

Children may be particularly susceptible to EMFs. A 1979 study based around Denver, Colorado, showed a statistical link between a high occurrence of leukaemia in children and proximity of their homes to overhead power lines. (61) Many of the links made between breast cancer and EMFs come from studies done on men with breast cancer who had been occupationally exposed to EMF's. (62) More recent studies indicate that women may be at risk from power lines and work-related exposure. (63)

The hormone Melatonin (produced in the pineal gland), which regulates the body's 24-hour clock, also regulates various hormones including oestrogen. It is thought that EMFs may be a risk factor for breast cancer because they can interfere with the normal production and secretion of melatonin, thus increasing the oestrogen levels in the blood stream. There is growing evidence that EMF's: "may block melatonin's ability to suppress breast cancer cells and reduce the pineal gland's nocturnal production of melatonin, thereby increasing susceptibility to breast cancer". (64)

Priority list of synthetic chemical substances with endocrine-disrupting characteristics, published by Pesticide News 31 (March 1996) and ENDS Report 276 (January 1998). Organochlorine pesticides (OCs): DDT, Lindane, Dieldrin Polychlorinated organic compounds: PCB's, dioxins and furans. Pesticides: 2,4,5-T, 2,4-D, alachlor, aldicarb, amitrole, atrazine, benomyl, carbaryl, chlordane, chlorfenvinphos, cypermethrin, DBCP, dicofol, dichlorvos, dimethoate, diazinon, endosulfan, esfenvalerate, fenvalerate, heptachlor, hexachlorobenzene, linuron, malathion, mancozeb, meneb, methomyl, methoxyxhlor, methyl parathion, metiram, metribuzin, mirex, nitrofen, oxychlordane, permethrin and other synthetic pyrethroids, toxaphene, transnonachlor, tributyltin oxide, trifluralin, vinclozolin, zineb, ziram. Alkly Phenols and Alkyl Phelol Ethoxylates (APs & APEs), Nonyl Phenol, Nonyl Phenol Ethoxylate, Octyl Phenol, Octyl Phenol Ethoxylate. Steroids: Ethinyl Oestradiol, 17-bOestradiol, Oestrone. Other Synthetic Chemicals: Bisphenol-A, Phthalates.